Front-end web development is the practice of converting data to a graphical interface, through the use of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, so that users can view and interact with that data.

There are several tools and platforms, such as WordPress, Joomla, and Drupal, available that can be used to develop the front end of a website, and understanding which tools are best fit for specific tasks marks the difference between developing a hacked site and a well designed, scalable site.

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the backbone of any website development process, without which a web page does not exist. Hypertext means that text has links, termed hyperlinks, embedded in it. When a user clicks on a word or a phrase that has a hyperlink, it will bring another web-page. A markup language indicates text can be turned into images, tables, links, and other representations. It is the HTML code that provides an overall framework of how the site will look. HTML was developed by Tim Berners-Lee. The latest version of HTML is called HTML5 and was published on October 28, 2014 by the W3 recommendation. This version contains new and efficient ways of handling elements such as video and audio files.

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) controls the presentation aspect of the site and allows your site to have its own unique look. It does this by maintaining style sheets which sit on top of other style rules and are triggered based on other inputs, such as device screen size and resolution.

JavaScript is an event-based imperative programming language (as opposed to HTML’s declarative language model) that is used to transform a static HTML page into a dynamic interface. JavaScript code can use the Document Object Model
(DOM), provided by the HTML standard, to manipulate a web page in response to events, like user input.

Using a technique called AJAX, JavaScript code can also actively retrieve content from the web (independent of the original HTML page retrieval), and also react to server-side events as well, adding a truly dynamic nature to the web page experience.

WebAssembly, supported by all the major browsers (i.e. from the major vendors Google, Apple, Mozilla and Microsoft), is the only alternative to JavaScript for running code in web browsers (without the help of plug-ins, such as Flash, Java or Silverlight; all being discontinued, as browsers are dropping plug-in support). Prior to its adoption, there was asm.js (a subset of JavaScript; and thus strictly works in all browsers), that’s also used as a compiler target with efficient support in browsers such as Internet Explorer 11; and for such browsers that do not support WebAssembly directly, it can be compiled to asm.js and those browsers supported that way. Generally speaking programmers do not program in WebAssembly (or asm.js) directly, but use languages such as Rust, C or C++ or in theory any language, that compile to it.

The developer of the front end keeps these points in mind, utilizing available tools and techniques to reach this end.

With continuing development for mobile devices, such as smart phones and tablets, designers need to ensure that their site comes up correctly in browsers on all devices. This can be done by creating a responsive web design using stylesheets in CSS.

Performance goals are chiefly concerned with render time, manipulating the HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to ensure that the site opens up quickly.

This technology enables speedy development and saves time.

A web style sheet is a form of separation of presentation and content for web design in which the markup (i.e., HTML or XHTML) of a webpage contains the page’s semantic content and structure, but does not define its visual layout (style). Instead, the style is defined in an external style sheet file using a style sheet language such as CSS or XSLT. This design approach is identified as a “separation” because it largely supersedes the antecedent methodology in which a page’s markup defined both style and structure.

The philosophy underlying this methodology is a specific case of separation of concerns.

Separation of style and content has advantages, but has only become practical after improvements in popular web browsers’ CSS implementations.

Overall, users experience of a site utilising style sheets will generally be quicker than sites that don’t use the technology. ‘Overall’ as the first page will probably load more slowly – because the style sheet AND the content will need to be transferred. Subsequent pages will load faster because no style information will need to be downloaded – the CSS file will already be in the browser’s cache.

Holding all the presentation styles in one file can reduce the maintenance time and reduces the chance of error, thereby improving presentation consistency. For example, the font color associated with a type of text element may be specified — and therefore easily modified — throughout an entire website simply by changing one short string of characters in a single file. The alternative approach, using styles embedded in each individual page, would require a cumbersome, time consuming, and error-prone edit of every file.

Sites that use CSS with either XHTML or HTML are easier to tweak so that they appear similar in different browsers (Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Safari, etc.).

Sites using CSS “degrade gracefully” in browsers unable to display graphical content, such as Lynx, or those so very old that they cannot use CSS. Browsers ignore CSS that they do not understand, such as CSS 3 statements. This enables a wide variety of user agents to be able to access the content of a site even if they cannot render the style sheet or are not designed with graphical capability in mind. For example, a browser using a refreshable braille display for output could disregard layout information entirely, and the user would still have access to all page content.

If a page’s layout information is stored externally, a user can decide to disable the layout information entirely, leaving the site’s bare content still in a readable form. Site authors may also offer multiple style sheets, which can be used to completely change the appearance of the site without altering any of its content.

Most modern web browsers also allow the user to define their own style sheet, which can include rules that override the author’s layout rules. This allows users, for example, to bold every hyperlink on every page they visit.

Because the semantic file contains only the meanings an author intends to convey, the styling of the various elements of the document’s content is very consistent. For example, headings, emphasized text, lists and mathematical expressions all receive consistently applied style properties from the external style sheet. Authors need not concern themselves with the style properties at the time of composition. These presentational details can be deferred until the moment of presentation.

The deferment of presentational details until the time of presentation means that a document can be easily re-purposed for an entirely different presentation medium with merely the application of a new style sheet already prepared for the new medium and consistent with elemental or structural vocabulary of the semantic document. A carefully authored document for a web page can easily be printed to a hard-bound volume complete with headers and footers, page numbers and a generated table of contents simply by applying a new style sheet.

Currently specifications (for example, XHTML, XSL, CSS) and software tools implementing these specification are only reaching the early stages of maturity. So there are some practical issues facing authors who seek to embrace this method of separating content and style.

While the style specifications are quite mature and still maturing, the software tools have been slow to adapt. Most of the major web development tools still embrace a mixed presentation-content model. So authors and designers looking for GUI based tools for their work find it difficult to follow the semantic web method. In addition to GUI tools, shared repositories for generalized style sheets would probably aid adoption of these methods.

A content designer is tasked with communicating information in the best way possible. An effective content designer is expected to be skilled in language(s), graphic design, and the technical requirements of front-end development. A content designer is an expert across various media, and is skilled in drafting compelling text, images, and videos.

An effective content designer is also a strong researcher. Content designers research the audience so that they can design effective content for them. They serve as advocates for users in the engineering and design processes. They try to make it simple for that audience to find the content they need. They also manage the content to keep it useful and up to date.

The term “content designer” originated in big technology, however, it is also used in online marketing, sound design, or government publishing. Content designers can work on the web, in print, or on digital services and applications.

Content designers working for government have to explain complicated information as clearly as possible. It is a form of User centred design.

Content design is not editorial writing. According to Sarah Winters (was Richards) of Content Design London:

If you approach a new piece of web content with ‘how shall I write this?’, that’s writing or editorial. If you approach it from ‘how am I going to get this across to the audience in the best way possible?’, that’s content design.

Content designers use data and testing to understand what people need and then try to meet those needs. This can help citizens understand their rights and obligations, and use government services.

Content designers make information easy to find, simple to understand, and accessible to everyone.

Content designer is a defined role in the UK government civil service and in the Australian government. In the UK government:

Content designers are responsible for creating, updating and reviewing content around the end-to-end user journey and are comfortable using evidence, data and research.

In Singapore, the Design Skills Framework includes the roles of Content writer and Content strategist, rather than a Content designer.

Content designers are often involved in online marketing, and usually focus on animated graphics, texts, videos, and sound depending on the message and the target audience. Most content designers produce their own content from scratch and work on their project individually, often using social media. The duties of a content designer vary, depending on the type of company, and the projects they are developing. The format of the content usually specifies a more specific title such as animator for motion graphics, writer for textual content, instructional designer for educational content, or a programmer for automated program/data-driven content. Most content designers must create or draw original work which is relevant to a specific topic or message they wish to communicate. An important function of this job type is being able to adapt to new advances in coding and design. Content designers also create new codes and templates, and often keep themselves updated by acquiring new technical skills.

Content designers who specialize in programming might deliberate the role of a web developer versus web designer. Web developers deal with the non-design aspect of building websites, which includes coding and writing markup and site hierarchy, including: client-side coding, server-side coding, and database technology. Web developers require a more intense education than web designers in order to create a website. Generally, web developers excel at coding and the technical aspects of web programming. Web designers create content, whereas web developers must create code that is easy to read; together they create user-friendly, and an overall enjoyable experience for the user to navigate.

Web designers use graphics and graphic design software to create visuals for a website. They then use coding to make it available online. Designers are creative and use both intuition and imagination. However, web designers express more concern with the look of a website than how technically sound it is. They often rely on a web developer to build a website from the ground up and know all the specific languages for that website.

Overall, online representation of a business through websites as a result of web development has made an impact on modern day society. Web developing serves a platform to promote online marketing for a business allowing it to gain global exposure. Millions of online users are able to engage with their favorite businesses thanks to web developing.

Web design and development introduce a convenient way to maneuver through websites. A simple design that easily engages users is an effective outcome. Web designs are constantly updated in order to stay relevant for its users. The aesthetic of a website translates how well users are attracted to use a website.

The web content lifecycle is the multi-disciplinary and often complex process that web content undergoes as it is managed through various publishing stages.

Authors describe multiple “stages” (or “phases”) in the web content lifecycle, along with a set of capabilities such as records management, digital asset management, collaboration, and version control that may be supported by various technologies and processes. One recognized technology for managing the web content lifecycle is a web content management system.

Concepts often considered in the web content lifecycle include project management, information management, information architecture, and, more recently, content strategy, website governance, and semantic publishing.

Various authors have proposed different “stages” or “phases” in the content lifecycle. Broadly speaking, the stages include content creation/development, revision, distribution, and archiving. The lifecycle processes, actions, content status, and content management roles may differ from model to model based on organizational strategies, needs, requirements, and capabilities.

In 2003, McKeever described “two iterative phases”: “the collection of content, and the delivery or publishing of that content on the Web.” She also explains a Web Content Management (WCM) “four layer hierarchy”ocontent, activity, outlet, and audienceointended to illustrate the breadth of WCM.

Bob Boiko’s Content Management Bible
emphasizes three major parts: collect (creation and editing is much more than simply collecting), manage (workflows, approvals, versioning, repository, etc.), and publish. These concepts are graphically displayed in a Content Management Possibilities poster developed by Boiko. The poster details such content management concepts as metadata, syndication, workflows, repositories, and databases.

Gerry McGovern also sees three “processes,” designating them creation, editing, and publishing.

JoAnn Hackos’ Content Management for Dynamic Web Delivery
argues for four “components”: authoring, repository, assembly/linking, and publishing.

In Managing Enterprise Content,
Ann Rockley argues for the planning of content reuse through four stages: create, review, manage, deliver. A stage can have sub-stages; for example, the “create” stage has three sub-stages: planning, design, and authoring and revision. She notes that content is often created by individuals working in isolation inside an enterprise (the coined term is the Content Silo Trap). To counter this content silo effect, she recommends using a “unified content strategy,” “a repeatable method of identifying all content requirements up front, creating consistently structured content for reuse, managing that content in a definitive source, and assembling content on demand to meet your customersi needs.”

Nakano described five “collaboration operations”: Submit, Compare, Update, Merge, and Publish.

The State government of Victoria (Australia) produced a flowchart with a diagrammatic view of the web content lifecycle with five stages: Develop, Quality Approval, Publish, Unpublish, and Archive. Some of the stages include sub-stages (for example, Archive consists of Storage, Archived, and Disposed) intended to further delineate content status. In addition, this model depicts three aspectsoStatus, Process, and Rolesoas part of the flow for web content. The four roles in this model are content author, content quality manager, business quality manager, and records manager.

The AIIM speaks of managing content to achieve business goals. AIIM ECM 101 Poster from 2003, and the AIIM Solving the ECM Puzzle Poster from 2005, present the same five stages: Capture, Manage, Store, Deliver, Preserve.

The Content Management Lifecycle Poster devised by CM Pros suggests six “steps”:

Each step contains sub-steps. For example, step 1, Plan, consists of Align, Analyze, Model, and Design; and step 2, Develop, consists of Create, Capture, Collect, Categorize, and Edit.

There is also another six stage model based on the concept of product lifecycle:

Bob Doyle suggests seven stages of the Web content lifecycle:

Doyle argues for seven stages based on the psychologist George A. Miller’s famed magical number “seven plus or minus two” limit on human information processing. He notes this is merely a suggestion and that one should “add or subtract a couple of your own favorites.”

In a 2005 article, Woods addressed governance of the content lifecycle. In his model, there are categories of issues to address, rather than a simple, cradle-to-grave pathway. He writes that most content governance questions fall into one of the following categories:

More recently, Kristina Halvorson has humorously suggested 15 discrete steps in the web content lifecycle: Audit, Analyze, Strategize, Categorize, Structure, Create, Revise, Revise, Revise, Approve, Tag, Format, Publish, Update, Archive.

Enterprise content management as a business strategy might incorporate web content management:

When integrated with an ECM system, WCM enables organizations to automate the complete Web content lifecycle. As soon as new content is developed, the system ensures that it goes live the moment it is intended toonot a minute earlier. By specifying timed releases and expiration dates, content is published to and removed from the Web according to recommendations, requirements and even regulations.

A web content management system can support and enhance certain processes because of automation, including document management, templates, and workflow management. However, the absence of well defined roles and process governance will greatly dilute the effectiveness of any technology intended to augment/enhance the publishing process overall.

Information management describes the “organization of and control over the structure, processing, and delivery of information.” The goal of information lifecycle management is to use policies, operations, and infrastructure to manage information throughout its useful life. However, businesses struggle to manage their data and information.

The missing stage in all the major sources is the organization of information, structuring it where possible, for example using XML or RDF, which allows arbitrary metadata to be added to all information elements. This is the secret that the knowledge managers describe as turning mere data or information into knowledge. It allows information to be retrieved in a number of ways and reused or repurposed in many more.

Using semantic markup in the publishing process is part of semantic publishing. Tim-Berners Lee’s original vision for the Semantic Web has yet to be realized, but many projects in various research areas are underway.

The dark web is the World Wide Web content that exists on darknets: overlay networks that use the Internet but require specific software, configurations, or authorization to access. Through the dark web, private computer networks can communicate and conduct business anonymously without divulging identifying information, such as a user’s location. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web, the part of the Web not indexed by web search engines, although sometimes the term deep web is mistakenly used to refer specifically to the dark web.

The darknets which constitute the dark web include small, friend-to-friend peer-to-peer networks, as well as large, popular networks such as Tor, Freenet, I2P, and Riffle operated by public organizations and individuals. Users of the dark web refer to the regular web as Clearnet due to its unencrypted nature. The Tor dark web or onionland uses the traffic anonymization technique of onion routing under the network’s top-level domain suffix .onion.

The dark web has often been confused with the deep web, the parts of the web not indexed (searchable) by search engines. The term Dark Web first emerged in 2009, however, it is unknown when the actual dark web first emerged. Many internet users only use the surface web, data that can be accessed by a typical Google browser. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web, but requires custom software in order to access its content. This confusion dates back to at least 2009. Since then, especially in reporting on Silk Road, the two terms have often been conflated, despite recommendations that they should be distinguished.

The Dark Web, also known as Darknet websites, are accessible only through networks such as Tor (“The Onion Routing” project) that are created specifically for the Dark Web. Tor browser and Tor-accessible sites are widely used among the darknet users and can be identified by the domain “.onion”. Tor browsers create encrypted entry points and pathways for the user, allowing their Dark Web searches and actions to be anonymous.

Identities and locations of darknet users stay anonymous and cannot be tracked due to the layered encryption system. The darknet encryption technology routes users’ data through a large number of intermediate servers, which protects the users’ identity and guarantees anonymity. The transmitted information can be decrypted only by a subsequent node in the scheme, which leads to the exit node. The complicated system makes it almost impossible to reproduce the node path and decrypt the information layer by layer. Due to the high level of encryption, websites are not able to track geolocation and IP of their users, and users are not able to get this information about the host. Thus, communication between darknet users is highly encrypted allowing users to talk, blog, and share files confidentially.

This anonymity also creates a forum for illegal activity which is what the Dark Web is most associated with. Authorities have reported the trade of child pornography, drug related crime, illegal financing of pornography relating to children, violence, and animals. A Dark Web market-place, also known as a crypto-market, operates by selling illegal goods such as drugs, weapons, and financial fraud related products and information.

A December 2014 study by Gareth Owen from the University of Portsmouth found that the most commonly hosted type of content on Tor was child pornography, followed by black markets, while the individual sites with the highest traffic were dedicated to botnet operations (see attached metric). Many whistleblowing sites maintain a presence as well as political discussion forums. Sites associated with Bitcoin, fraud-related services, and mail order services are some of the most prolific.

As of December 2020, the number of active Tor sites in .onion was estimated at 76,300 (containing a lot of copies). Of these, 18 000 would have original content.

In July 2017, Roger Dingledine, one of the three founders of the Tor Project, said that Facebook is the biggest hidden service. The Dark Web comprises only 3% of the traffic in the Tor network.

A February 2016 study from researchers at King’s College London gives the following breakdown of content by an alternative category set, highlighting the illicit use of .onion services.

Botnets are often structured with their command-and-control servers based on a censorship-resistant hidden service, creating a large amount of bot-related traffic.

Commercial darknet markets mediate transactions for illegal goods and typically use Bitcoin as payment. These markets have attracted significant media coverage, starting with the popularity of Silk Road and Diabolus Market and its subsequent seizure by legal authorities. Silk Road was one of the first dark web marketplaces that emerged in 2011 and has allowed for the trading of weapons and identity fraud resources. These markets have no protection for its users and can be closed down at any time by authorities. Despite the closures of these marketplaces, others pop up in their place. As of 2020, there have been at least 38 active dark web market places. These marketplaces are similar to that of eBay or Craigslist where users can interact with sellers and leave reviews about marketplace products.

Examination of price differences in Dark web markets versus prices in real life or over the World Wide Web have been attempted as well as studies in the quality of goods received over the Dark web. One such study was performed on Evolution, one of the most popular crypto-markets active from January 2013 to March 2015. Although it found the digital information, such as concealment methods and shipping country, “seems accurate”, the study uncovered issues with the quality of illegal drugs sold in Evolution, stating that, “… the illicit drugs purity is found to be different from the information indicated on their respective listings.” Less is known about consumer motivations for accessing these marketplaces and factors associated with their use.

Bitcoin is one of the main cryptocurrencies used in dark web marketplaces due to the flexibility of the currency. With Bitcoin, people can hide their intentions as well as their identity. A common approach was to use a digital currency exchanger service which converted Bitcoin into an online game currency (such as gold coins in World of Warcraft) that will later be converted back into money. Bitcoin services such as tumblers are often available on Tor, and some – such as Grams – offer darknet market integration. A research study undertaken by Jean-Loup Richet, a research fellow at ESSEC, and carried out with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, highlighted new trends in the use of Bitcoin tumblers for money laundering purposes.

Due to its relevance in the digital world, Bitcoin has become a popular product for users to scam companies with. Cybercriminal groups such as DDOS”4″ have led to over 140 cyberattacks on companies since the emergence of Bitcoins in 2014. These attacks have led to the formation of other cybercriminal groups as well as Cyber Extortion.

Many hackers sell their services either individually or as a part of groups. Such groups include xDedic, hackforum, Trojanforge, Mazafaka, dark0de and the TheRealDeal darknet market. Some have been known to track and extort apparent pedophiles. Cyber crimes and hacking services for financial institutions and banks have also been offered over the Dark web. Attempts to monitor this activity have been made through various government and private organizations, and an examination of the tools used can be found in the Procedia Computer Science journal. Use of Internet-scale DNS Distributed Reflection Denial of Service (DRDoS) attacks have also been made through leveraging the Dark Web. There are many scam .onion sites also present which end up giving tools for download that are infected with trojan horses or backdoors.

Scott Dueweke the president and founder of Zebryx Consulting states that Russian electronic currency such as WebMoney and Perfect Money are behind the majority of the illegal actions. In April 2015, Flashpoint received a 5 million dollar investment to help their clients gather intelligence from the Deep and Dark web. There are numerous carding forums, PayPal and Bitcoin trading websites as well as fraud and counterfeiting services. Many such sites are scams themselves. Phishing via cloned websites and other scam sites are numerous, with darknet markets often advertised with fraudulent URLs.

The type of content that has the most popularity on the dark web is illegal pornography, more specifically, child pornography. About 80% of web traffic is related to accessing child pornography despite it being difficult to find, even on the dark web. A website called Lolita City, that has since been taken down, contained over 100 GB of child pornographic media and had about 15,000 members.

There is regular law enforcement action against sites distributing child pornography – often via compromising the site and tracking users’ IP addresses. In 2015 the FBI investigated and took down a website called PLAYPEN. At the time, PLAYPEN was the largest child pornography website on the dark web with over 200,000 members.Sites use complex systems of guides, forums and community regulation. Other content includes sexualised torture and killing of animals and revenge porn.

Terrorist organization took to the internet as early as the 1990s, however, the birth of the dark web attracted these organizations due to the anonymity, lack of regulation, social interaction, and easy accessibility. These groups have been taking advantage of the chat platforms within the dark web to inspire terrorist attacks. Groups have even posted “How To” guides, teaching people how to become and hide their identity as terrorist.

The dark web became a forum for terrorist propaganda, guiding information, and most importantly, funding. With the introduction of Bitcoin, an anonymous transactions were created which allowed for anonymous donations and funding. By accepting Bitcoin, terrorists were now able to fund money to purchase weaponry. In 2018, an individual named Ahmed Sarsur was charged for attempting to purchase explosives and hire snipers to aid Syrian terrorists, as well as attempting to provide them financial support, all through the dark web.

There are at least some real and fraudulent websites claiming to be used by ISIL (ISIS), including a fake one seized in Operation Onymous. With the increase of technology, it has allowed cyber terrorists to flourish by attacking the weaknesses of the technology. In the wake of the November 2015 Paris attacks, an actual such site was hacked by an Anonymous-affiliated hacker group, GhostSec, and replaced with an advert for Prozac. The Rawti Shax Islamist group was found to be operating on the dark web at one time.

Within the dark web, there exists emerging social media platforms similar to those on the World Wide Web, this is know as the Dark Web Social Network (DWSN). The DWSN works a like a regular social networking site where members can have customizable pages, have friends, like posts, and blog in forums. Facebook and other traditional social media platforms have begun to make dark-web versions of their websites to address problems associated with the traditional platforms and to continue their service in all areas of the World Wide Web. Unlike Facebook, the privacy policy of the DWSN requires that members are to reveal absolutely no personal information and remain anonymous.

There are reports of crowdfunded assassinations and hitmen for hire, however, these are believed to be exclusively scams. The creator of Silk Road, Ross Ulbricht, was arrested by Homeland Security investigations (HSI) for his site and allegedly hiring a hitman to kill six people, although the charges were later dropped. There is an urban legend that one can find live murder on the dark web. The term “Red Room” has been coined based on the Japanese animation and urban legend of the same name. However, the evidence points toward all reported instances being hoaxes.

On June 25, 2015, the indie game Sad Satan was reviewed by YouTubers Obscure Horror Corner which they claimed to have found via the dark web. Various inconsistencies in the channel’s reporting cast doubt on the reported version of events. There are several websites which analyze and monitor the deep web and dark web for threat intelligence.

There have been arguments that the dark web promotes civil liberties, like “free speech, privacy, anonymity.” Some prosecutors and government agencies are concerned that it is a haven for criminal activity. The deep and dark web are applications of integral internet features to provide privacy and anonymity. Policing involves targeting specific activities of the private web deemed illegal or subject to internet censorship.

When investigating online suspects, police typically use the IP (Internet Protocol) address of the individual, however, due to Tor. browsers creating anonymity, this becomes an impossible tactic. As a result, law enforcement has employed many other tactics in order to identify and arrest those engaging in illegal activity on the dark web. OSINT, or Open Source Intelligence, are data collection tools that legally collect information from public sources. OSINT tools can be dark web specific to help officers find bits of information that would lead them to gaining more knowledge about interactions going on in the dark web.

In 2015 it was announced that Interpol now offers a dedicated dark web training program featuring technical information on Tor, cybersecurity and simulated Darknet market takedowns. In October 2013 the UK’s National Crime Agency and GCHQ announced the formation of a ‘Joint Operations Cell’ to focus on cybercrime. In November 2015 this team would be tasked with tackling child exploitation on the dark web as well as other cybercrime. In March 2017 the Congressional Research Service released an extensive report on the dark web, noting the changing dynamic of how information is accessed and presented on it; characterized by the unknown, it is of increasing interest to researchers, law enforcement, and policymakers. In August 2017, according to reportage, cybersecurity firms which specialize in monitoring and researching the dark web on behalf of banks and retailers routinely share their findings with the FBI and with other law enforcement agencies “when possible and necessary” regarding illegal content. The Russian-speaking underground offering a crime-as-a-service model is regarded as being particularly robust.

Many individual journalists, alternative news organizations, educators, and researchers are influential in their writing and speaking of the Darknet, and making its use clear to the general public. Media coverage typically reports on the dark web in two ways; detailing the power and freedom of speech the dark web allows you to express, or more commonly reaffirms the illegality and fear of its contents, such as computer hackers. Many headlines tie the dark web to CP (Child Pornography) with headlines such as, “N.J. man charged with surfing ‘Dark Web’ to collect nearly 3K images of child porn”, along with other illegal activities where news outlets describe it as “a hub for black markets that sell or distribute drugs”.

Specialist Clearweb news sites such as DeepDotWeb and All Things Vice provide news coverage and practical information about dark web sites and services. However DeepDotWeb was shut down by authorities in 2019. The Hidden Wiki and its mirrors and forks hold some of the largest directories of content at any given time. Traditional media and news channels such as ABC News have also featured articles examining the Darknet.